학술적 글쓰기의 언어 : 객관성, 정밀성, 그리고 헷지의 기술

[MisoEnglish 영어 글쓰기 시리즈 #7]

학술적 글쓰기의 언어 : -----객관성, 정밀성, 그리고 헷지의 기술

안녕하세요, MisoEnglish입니다. 지난 편들에서 우리는 문장에서 위로 쌓아왔습니다 — 단락을 거쳐, 이메일과 논증적 에세이까지. 오늘은 쓰여진 영어의 가장 격식 있는 레지스터로 넘어갑니다: 학술적 글쓰기예요.

학술적 글쓰기는 어렵고, 건조하며, 알아보기 힘들다는 명성을 갖고 있습니다. 그 명성의 일부는 타당합니다 — 형편없이 쓰여진 학술 산문은 지적 삶의 큰 재앙 중 하나예요. 하지만 잘 쓰여진 학술 영어는 완전히 다른 것이에요: 정밀하고, 엄밀하며, 조용히 강력한. 연구할 가치가 있는 문체예요.

이번 편은 학술 영어를 독특하게 만드는 것이 무엇인지 — 그리고 어떻게 잘 쓰는지에 관한 거예요.

1. 학술적 글쓰기는 무엇이 다른가?

학술적 글쓰기는 네 가지 핵심 방식에서 다른 형태의 영어 산문과 달라요.

격식적입니다. 학술적 글쓰기는 축약형("it's" → "it is"), 구어체("a lot of" → "a great deal of"), 비공식 어휘("kids" → "children," "big" → "significant")를 피해요.

비인칭적입니다 — 하지만 수동태는 아닙니다. 학술적 글쓰기는 전통적으로 논증자보다 논증을 전면에 내세우는 구조를 위해 1인칭("I think")을 피합니다. 하지만 이것이 수동태를 기본으로 삼는 것을 의미하지는 않아요. "This essay argues"가 "It has been argued by this essay"보다 선호됩니다.

헷지됩니다. 학술적 글쓰기는 거의 절대적인 주장을 하지 않아요. 주장을 한정합니다 — 불확실성, 확신의 정도, 근거의 한계를 인정하면서. 이것은 약함이 아닙니다 — 정밀함이에요.

인용적입니다. 학술적 글쓰기는 기존 학문 내에 자신을 위치시켜요. 모든 중요한 주장은 근거로 지지되거나 출처에 귀속됩니다.

함께, 이 네 가지 특징은 동시에 권위 있고 겸손한 문체를 만들어냅니다 — 확실성이 정당화되는 곳에서는 확실하고, 그렇지 않은 곳에서는 신중한.

1. 격식성: 무엇을 피하고 대신 무엇을 사용하는가

학술적 레지스터로의 전환은 비공식 어휘와 구조를 격식 있는 등가물로 대체하는 것을 요구해요.

흔한 비공식 → 격식 대체:

· "a lot of" → "a considerable number of" / "a significant proportion of" · "show" → "demonstrate" / "indicate" / "suggest" · "get" → "obtain" / "acquire" / "receive" · "look at" → "examine" / "analyse" / "investigate" · "think" → "argue" / "contend" / "propose" · "find out" → "determine" / "establish" / "ascertain" · "use" → "utilise" / "employ" / "apply" (참고: "use"는 종종 완전히 수용 가능해요; 과도하게 격식화하지 마세요) · "deal with" → "address" / "consider" / "examine" · "make clear" → "demonstrate" / "establish" / "illustrate"

축약형을 완전히 피하세요: · "it's" → "it is" · "doesn't" → "does not" · "can't" → "cannot" · "won't" → "will not"

구어적 강조어를 피하세요: · "very important" → "of considerable importance" / "significant" · "really shows" → "clearly demonstrates" / "strongly suggests" · "quite a few" → "a number of" / "several"

한 가지 중요한 주의: 격식성이 거창함이 되어서는 안 돼요. 목표는 정밀함이지, 부풀리기가 아닙니다. "Use"가 종종 "utilise"보다 나아요. "Show"가 때로 "demonstrate"보다 더 직접적이에요. 단순히 더 학술적으로 들리기 때문이 아니라 — 더 정밀할 때 격식 있는 옵션을 선택하세요.

1. 객관성: "I" 없이 쓰기

학술 영어를 처음 접하는 필자들에게 가장 흔한 도전 중 하나는 "I"를 사용하지 않고 논증을 어떻게 만드는가예요. 몇 가지 전략이 잘 작동합니다.

에세이나 논문을 전면에 내세우세요 "This essay argues that..." / "This paper examines..." / "The present study investigates..."

근거를 전면에 내세우세요 "The data suggest that..." / "The findings indicate..." / "The evidence points to..."

비인칭 구조를 사용하세요 "It can be argued that..." / "It is worth noting that..." / "It is widely accepted that..."

선택적으로 수동태를 사용하세요 "Three experiments were conducted..." / "The participants were divided into two groups..." 참고: 행위자가 진정으로 중요하지 않거나 알려지지 않은 경우에만 수동태를 사용하세요. 단순히 "I"를 피하기 위해 사용하지 마세요.

협력적 또는 포용적 맥락에서 "we"를 사용하세요 일부 분야와 문체에서, "we"는 독자를 포함하는 데 사용됩니다: "As we have seen..." / "We can observe that..." 이것은 들리는 것보다 더 자연스럽고, 많은 학술적 맥락에서 널리 수용됩니다.

피해야 할 것: · "I think that..." ("This essay argues that..." 또는 "The evidence suggests that..."로 대체) · "In my opinion..." ("It can be argued that..." 또는 단순히 주장을 직접 진술) · "I believe..." ("This analysis suggests that..." 또는 "The data indicate that..."로 대체)

한 가지 중요한 참고: "I"를 피하는 관례는 분야별로 다릅니다. 인문학 분야 — 문학, 역사, 철학 — 에서 1인칭 글쓰기는 점점 더 수용되고 있으며, 일부 저널은 적극적으로 장려해요. 과학적이고 사회과학적인 글쓰기에서는 비인칭 구조가 표준으로 남아 있습니다. 항상 자신의 분야 관례를 확인하세요.

1. 헷지: 학술적 글쓰기에서 가장 잘못 이해된 기술

헷지는 확실성의 정도를 나타내기 위해 주장을 한정하는 관행이에요. 학술적 글쓰기에서 가장 중요하고 — 가장 잘못 이해된 — 특징 중 하나예요.

많은 필자들이 헷지를 약함의 표시로 생각합니다 — 입장에 헌신하지 못함으로. 학술적 글쓰기에서는 반대가 사실이에요. 정밀한 헷지는 지적 엄밀함의 표시예요. 독자에게 필자가 얼마나 확신하는지, 어떤 근거에서인지를 정확하게 알려줍니다.

주요 헷지 장치:

양상 동사 (확실성의 정도 표시) · 높은 확실성: "This will / must / clearly demonstrates..." · 중간 확실성: "This may / might / could / should..." · 낮은 확실성: "This might / could possibly / may..."

빈도와 정도의 부사 · "frequently," "often," "generally," "typically," "commonly" · "largely," "predominantly," "primarily," "mainly" · "in many cases," "in most instances," "under certain conditions"

보고 동사 (주장을 출처에 귀속) 다른 보고 동사들은 다른 정도의 지지를 담고 있어요: · 강한 지지: "X demonstrates," "X proves," "X establishes" · 중간 지지: "X argues," "X contends," "X proposes," "X suggests" · 중립적 보고: "X states," "X notes," "X observes" · 거리 또는 의심: "X claims," "X asserts," "X alleges"

올바른 보고 동사를 선택하면 독자에게 출처에 동의하는지, 중립을 유지하는지, 또는 회의적인지를 신호합니다.

한정 표현 (주장의 범위 설정) · "In the context of..." / "With respect to..." / "In the case of..." · "Based on the available evidence..." / "Within the scope of this study..." · "It is important to note that this finding may not generalise to..."

헷지 실습 — 비교:

과도하게 확신하는 (학술적 글쓰기에 부적절): "Social media causes political polarisation."

적절하게 헷지된: "The available evidence suggests a significant association between social media use and political polarisation, though the causal mechanisms remain contested."

헷지된 버전이 더 약하지 않습니다 — 더 정확해요. 독자에게 근거가 무엇을 보여주는지를 알려주고, 무엇이 불확실한지를 인정하며, 현재 지식 상태 내에 주장을 정확하게 위치시킵니다.

피해야 할 것: 과도한 헷지 헷지는 정밀해야 하며, 만연해서는 안 됩니다. "It might perhaps be possible that, under certain conditions, some evidence could potentially suggest..."와 같은 문장은 너무 많이 헷지하여 아무것도 말하지 않아요. 목표는 교정된 자신감입니다 — 확실성이 정당화되는 곳에서는 확실하고, 그렇지 않은 곳에서는 신중한.

1. 인용: 문헌 속에 논증 위치시키기

학술적 글쓰기는 고립 속에 존재하지 않습니다 — 이미 진행 중인 대화에 들어가요. 인용은 세 가지 기능을 합니다: 출처를 인정하고, 주장을 지지하며, 기존 학문과의 관계에서 필자의 논증을 위치시켜요.

모든 학술 필자가 필요로 하는 세 가지 인용 움직임:

지지 인용 기존 근거나 권위로 주장을 뒷받침하는 데 사용됩니다. "Studies have consistently shown that early childhood education yields long-term economic benefits (Heckman, 2006; Cunha & Heckman, 2007)."

대조 인용 경쟁하는 입장을 인정하는 데 사용됩니다. "While some scholars argue that market mechanisms are sufficient to address climate risk (Nordhaus, 2018), others contend that the speed of necessary change requires direct regulatory intervention (Stern, 2015)."

갭 인용 기존 학문이 다루지 않은 것을 확인하는 데 사용됩니다 — 따라서 에세이가 기여하는 것. "Although the relationship between social media and political polarisation has been extensively studied in the American context (Bail et al., 2018; Settle, 2018), comparatively little attention has been paid to its effects in multiparty European democracies."

인용을 매끄럽게 통합하기 약한 (인용 더미): "Social media affects democracy (Smith, 2019; Jones, 2020; Brown, 2021; Lee, 2022)."

강한 (통합된): "Research has consistently linked social media use to declining trust in democratic institutions (Smith, 2019), increased exposure to misinformation (Jones, 2020), and greater affective polarisation between supporters of opposing parties (Brown, 2021)."

강한 버전은 구체적인 주장을 지지하기 위해 인용을 사용합니다 — 논증의 대체물이 아닌.

1. 세 가지 레지스터로 쓴 단락

레지스터의 차이를 보여주기 위해, 동일한 내용을 세 가지 방식으로 써볼게요.

비공식: "A lot of research shows that social media is really bad for democracy. People get stuck in bubbles where they only see stuff they already agree with, and this makes them more extreme. Some researchers think it's even worse than TV."

전문적 / 저널리즘적: "Research increasingly suggests that social media poses a significant threat to democratic discourse. By exposing users primarily to content that reinforces their existing beliefs, platforms like Facebook and Twitter have been linked to greater political polarisation and reduced tolerance for opposing views — effects that some analysts argue exceed those associated with earlier mass media technologies."

학술적: "A growing body of empirical research suggests a significant association between social media use and increased political polarisation (Bail et al., 2018; Settle, 2018). The mechanism most frequently proposed is selective exposure: algorithmic curation systems tend to present users with content consistent with their pre-existing beliefs, potentially reinforcing partisan identities and reducing engagement with opposing viewpoints (Pariser, 2011). Some scholars have argued that these effects may exceed those associated with earlier mass media technologies, though this claim remains contested (Prior, 2013)."

알아채세요: 학술적 버전은 단순히 더 길거나 더 격식 있는 것이 아닙니다. 더 정밀해요 — 모든 한정어, 모든 인용, 모든 헷지 장치가 특정한 역할을 하고 있어요.

1. 고급 영어 학습자가 가져갈 것들

· 격식성은 부풀리기가 아닌 정밀함에 관한 것이에요. 단순히 학술적으로 들리기 위해서가 아니라 더 정확할 때 격식 있는 어휘를 선택하세요. "Use"가 종종 "utilise"보다 나아요. · "I"를 피하는 것이 수동태를 기본으로 삼는 것을 의미하지 않아요. "This essay argues"는 능동적이고, 명확하며, 완전히 학술적입니다. · 헷지는 약함이 아닌 지적 엄밀함의 표시예요. 확신의 수준을 근거의 강도에 맞추세요 — 그 이상도 그 이하도 아니게. · 보고 동사를 신중하게 선택하세요. "X demonstrates"는 "X suggests"와 같지 않고, 둘 다 "X claims"와 달라요. 동사가 출처와의 관계를 신호합니다. · 인용은 주장을 지지합니다 — 논증의 대체물이 아니에요. 모든 인용은 출처가 무엇을 말하는지, 왜 관련 있는지를 설명하는 문장 안에 통합되어야 해요. · 학술적 글쓰기는 대화예요. 에세이는 이미 진행 중인 논쟁에 들어갑니다. 추가하거나 논쟁하는 것을 설명하기 전에 다른 사람들이 말한 것을 인정하세요.

다음 편 예고

이 시리즈의 마지막 편에서, 우리는 모든 것을 한데 모읍니다 — 이전 일곱 편의 모든 원칙을 통합하는 완전한 글을 처음부터 쓸 거예요: 명확한 문장, 잘 구성된 단락, 논증적 구조, 전문적 톤, 그리고 학술적 정밀성. 우리가 쌓아온 모든 것의 시험입니다.

참고 문헌 (References)

· Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press. · Bailey, S. (2018). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. Routledge. · Williams, J.M. & Bizup, J. (2017). Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace. Pearson. · Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse. Continuum.

출처: MisoEnglish · slowblooms.tistory.com

 

[MisoEnglish English Writing Series #7]

The Language of Academic Writing :

-----Objectivity, Precision, and the Art of the Hedge

Hello, this is MisoEnglish. In our previous posts, we have built from the sentence upward — through paragraphs, emails, and argumentative essays. Today we turn to the most formal register of written English: academic writing.

Academic writing has a reputation for being difficult, dry, and impenetrable. Some of that reputation is deserved — badly written academic prose is one of the great afflictions of intellectual life. But well-written academic English is something else entirely: precise, rigorous, and quietly powerful. It is a style that rewards study.

This post is about what makes academic English distinctive — and how to write it well.

1. What Makes Academic Writing Different?

Academic writing differs from other forms of English prose in four key ways.

It is formal. Academic writing avoids contractions ("it's" → "it is"), colloquialisms ("a lot of" → "a great deal of"), and informal vocabulary ("kids" → "children," "big" → "significant").

It is impersonal — but not passive. Academic writing traditionally avoids the first person ("I think") in favour of constructions that foreground the argument rather than the arguer. However, this does not mean defaulting to the passive voice. "This essay argues" is preferable to "It has been argued by this essay."

It is hedged. Academic writing rarely makes absolute claims. It qualifies assertions — acknowledging uncertainty, degrees of confidence, and the limits of evidence. This is not weakness — it is precision.

It is citational. Academic writing situates itself within existing scholarship. Every significant claim is either supported by evidence or attributed to a source.

Together, these four features create a style that is simultaneously authoritative and humble — certain where certainty is warranted, cautious where it is not.

1. Formality: What to Avoid and What to Use Instead

The shift to academic register requires replacing informal vocabulary and constructions with their formal equivalents.

Common informal → formal substitutions:

· "a lot of" → "a considerable number of" / "a significant proportion of" · "show" → "demonstrate" / "indicate" / "suggest" · "get" → "obtain" / "acquire" / "receive" · "look at" → "examine" / "analyse" / "investigate" · "think" → "argue" / "contend" / "propose" · "find out" → "determine" / "establish" / "ascertain" · "use" → "utilise" / "employ" / "apply" (note: "use" is often perfectly acceptable; do not over-formalise) · "deal with" → "address" / "consider" / "examine" · "make clear" → "demonstrate" / "establish" / "illustrate"

Avoid contractions entirely: · "it's" → "it is" · "doesn't" → "does not" · "can't" → "cannot" · "won't" → "will not"

Avoid colloquial intensifiers: · "very important" → "of considerable importance" / "significant" · "really shows" → "clearly demonstrates" / "strongly suggests" · "quite a few" → "a number of" / "several"

One important caution: formality should not become pomposity. The goal is precision, not inflation. "Use" is often better than "utilise." "Show" is sometimes more direct than "demonstrate." Choose the formal option when it is more precise — not merely because it sounds more academic.

1. Objectivity: Writing Without "I"

One of the most common challenges for writers new to academic English is how to make arguments without using "I." Several strategies work well.

Foreground the essay or paper "This essay argues that..." / "This paper examines..." / "The present study investigates..."

Foreground the evidence "The data suggest that..." / "The findings indicate..." / "The evidence points to..."

Use impersonal constructions "It can be argued that..." / "It is worth noting that..." / "It is widely accepted that..."

Use the passive voice selectively "Three experiments were conducted..." / "The participants were divided into two groups..." Note: Use the passive only when the agent is genuinely unimportant or unknown. Do not use it simply to avoid "I."

Use "we" in collaborative or inclusive contexts In some disciplines and styles, "we" is used to include the reader: "As we have seen..." / "We can observe that..." This is more natural than it sounds, and is widely accepted in many academic contexts.

What to avoid: · "I think that..." (replace with "This essay argues that..." or "The evidence suggests that...") · "In my opinion..." (replace with "It can be argued that..." or simply state the claim directly) · "I believe..." (replace with "This analysis suggests that..." or "The data indicate that...")

One important note: the convention of avoiding "I" is discipline-specific. In humanities disciplines — literature, history, philosophy — first-person writing is increasingly accepted, and some journals actively encourage it. In scientific and social scientific writing, impersonal constructions remain the norm. Always check the conventions of your discipline.

1. Hedging: The Most Misunderstood Skill in Academic Writing

Hedging is the practice of qualifying claims to indicate degrees of certainty. It is one of the most important — and most misunderstood — features of academic writing.

Many writers think hedging is a sign of weakness — a failure to commit to a position. In academic writing, the opposite is true. Precise hedging is a mark of intellectual rigour. It tells the reader exactly how confident the writer is, and on what basis.

The main hedging devices:

Modal verbs (indicating degrees of certainty) · High certainty: "This will / must / clearly demonstrates..." · Medium certainty: "This may / might / could / should..." · Lower certainty: "This might / could possibly / may..."

Adverbs of frequency and degree · "frequently," "often," "generally," "typically," "commonly" · "largely," "predominantly," "primarily," "mainly" · "in many cases," "in most instances," "under certain conditions"

Reporting verbs (attributing claims to sources) Different reporting verbs carry different degrees of endorsement: · Strong endorsement: "X demonstrates," "X proves," "X establishes" · Moderate endorsement: "X argues," "X contends," "X proposes," "X suggests" · Neutral reporting: "X states," "X notes," "X observes" · Distance or doubt: "X claims," "X asserts," "X alleges"

Choosing the right reporting verb signals to the reader whether you agree with the source, are remaining neutral, or are sceptical.

Limiting phrases (scoping the claim) · "In the context of..." / "With respect to..." / "In the case of..." · "Based on the available evidence..." / "Within the scope of this study..." · "It is important to note that this finding may not generalise to..."

Hedging in practice — compare:

Over-confident (inappropriate in academic writing): "Social media causes political polarisation."

Appropriately hedged: "The available evidence suggests a significant association between social media use and political polarisation, though the causal mechanisms remain contested."

The hedged version is not weaker — it is more accurate. It tells the reader what the evidence shows, acknowledges what remains uncertain, and locates the claim precisely within the current state of knowledge.

What to avoid: over-hedging Hedging should be precise, not pervasive. A sentence like "It might perhaps be possible that, under certain conditions, some evidence could potentially suggest..." has hedged so heavily that it says nothing. The goal is calibrated confidence — certain where certainty is warranted, cautious where it is not.

1. Citation: Situating Your Argument in the Literature

Academic writing does not exist in isolation — it enters a conversation that is already underway. Citations serve three functions: they acknowledge sources, they support claims, and they position the writer's argument in relation to existing scholarship.

Three citation moves that every academic writer needs:

The supporting citation Used to back up a claim with existing evidence or authority. "Studies have consistently shown that early childhood education yields long-term economic benefits (Heckman, 2006; Cunha & Heckman, 2007)."

The contrasting citation Used to acknowledge competing positions. "While some scholars argue that market mechanisms are sufficient to address climate risk (Nordhaus, 2018), others contend that the speed of necessary change requires direct regulatory intervention (Stern, 2015)."

The gap citation Used to identify what existing scholarship has not addressed — and therefore what your essay contributes. "Although the relationship between social media and political polarisation has been extensively studied in the American context (Bail et al., 2018; Settle, 2018), comparatively little attention has been paid to its effects in multiparty European democracies."

Integrating citations smoothly Weak (citation dump): "Social media affects democracy (Smith, 2019; Jones, 2020; Brown, 2021; Lee, 2022)."

Strong (integrated): "Research has consistently linked social media use to declining trust in democratic institutions (Smith, 2019), increased exposure to misinformation (Jones, 2020), and greater affective polarisation between supporters of opposing parties (Brown, 2021)."

The strong version uses citations to support specific claims — not as a substitute for argument.

1. A Paragraph in Three Registers

To illustrate the difference between registers, here is the same content written three ways.

Informal: "A lot of research shows that social media is really bad for democracy. People get stuck in bubbles where they only see stuff they already agree with, and this makes them more extreme. Some researchers think it's even worse than TV."

Professional / journalistic: "Research increasingly suggests that social media poses a significant threat to democratic discourse. By exposing users primarily to content that reinforces their existing beliefs, platforms like Facebook and Twitter have been linked to greater political polarisation and reduced tolerance for opposing views — effects that some analysts argue exceed those associated with earlier mass media technologies."

Academic: "A growing body of empirical research suggests a significant association between social media use and increased political polarisation (Bail et al., 2018; Settle, 2018). The mechanism most frequently proposed is selective exposure: algorithmic curation systems tend to present users with content consistent with their pre-existing beliefs, potentially reinforcing partisan identities and reducing engagement with opposing viewpoints (Pariser, 2011). Some scholars have argued that these effects may exceed those associated with earlier mass media technologies, though this claim remains contested (Prior, 2013)."

Notice: the academic version is not simply longer or more formal. It is more precise — every qualifier, every citation, every hedging device is doing a specific job.

1. What Advanced Learners Can Take Away

· Formality is about precision, not inflation. Choose formal vocabulary when it is more accurate — not merely to sound academic. "Use" is often better than "utilise." · Avoiding "I" does not mean defaulting to the passive. "This essay argues" is active, clear, and perfectly academic. · Hedging is a mark of intellectual rigour, not weakness. Match your level of confidence to the strength of your evidence — no more, no less. · Choose reporting verbs carefully. "X demonstrates" is not the same as "X suggests," and both differ from "X claims." The verb signals your relationship to the source. · Citations support claims — they do not substitute for argument. Every citation should be integrated into a sentence that explains what the source says and why it is relevant. · Academic writing is a conversation. Your essay enters a debate that is already underway. Acknowledge what others have said before explaining what you add or contest.

Coming Up Next

In the final post of this series, we bring everything together — writing a complete piece from scratch that integrates the principles of all seven previous posts: clear sentences, well-constructed paragraphs, argumentative structure, professional tone, and academic precision. It is the test of everything we have built.

References & Further Reading

· Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press. · Bailey, S. (2018). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. Routledge. · Williams, J.M. & Bizup, J. (2017). Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace. Pearson. · Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse. Continuum.

Source: MisoEnglish · slowblooms.tistory.com

 

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